FPP Python Assignment no 1 to 5 Theory and Flowchart.

 
Assignment No:01

Problem Statement: 

a) Display your name, count length and display what will be your age in year. 

b) Write python program to calculate arithmetic operation using type conversion.

Aim:  Basic operations on numbers and strings using python.

Learning Objectives:

• To understand the basics about python programming.
• To learn how to write and execute python program.

Learning Outcomes:

• Upon completing this lab exercise, the learner will be able to
• Write a basic python program.
• Interpreted and run python program.
• Understand the identifiers and operators in python. 

Theory:

1. What is Python?
2. Why is python called as dynamic typing language?
3. How to store different types of data inside python identifier?
4. What is the difference between interpreter and compiler?
5. What is classpath? why do need it?
6. Explain the steps to execute python program through command prompt?
7. What is IDLE?
8. What is mean by comment in python and how many types of comments? 
9. What is mean by type conversion in python?
10. How do we accept various types of input from the user in python programming?

Algorithm:

a) Algorithm for display your name, count length and display what will be your age in year.

Step 1: Start

Step 2: Accept the name from the user.

Step 3: Find out the length of that name.

Step 4: Accept your birth year from the user.

Step 5: Find the age = current_year - birth_year.

Step 6: Display the name along with its length and age in year.

Step 7: Stop.

b) Algorithm for write python program to calculate arithmetic operation using type conversion.

Step 1: Start

Step 2: Accept the two numbers num1 and num2 from user.

Step 3: Find out the addition of these two numbers (sum = num1+num2)

Step 4: Display the addition of two numbers

Step 5: Find out the subtraction of these two numbers (sub = num1-num2)

Step 6: Display the subtraction of two numbers

Step 7: Find out the multiplication of these two numbers (mul = num1*num2)

Step 8: Display the multiplication of two numbers

Step 9: Find out the division of these two numbers (div = num1/num2)

Step 10: Display the division of two numbers

Step 11: Stop.

Flowchart:

a) Flowchart for display your name, count length and display what will be your age in year.

b) Flowchart for write python program to calculate arithmetic operation using type conversion.

Conclusion: Hence, we learn how to execute the python program through command line argument and also learn how to accept input from the user and how to process this input with basic arithmetic operations.

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Assignment No:02

Problem Statement: Write simple python program that demonstrates the use of lists, tuples, and dictionaries

Aim: To learn basic data structures of python.

Learning Objectives:

• To understand the basics about python data structures.
• To learn how to create and manipulate data inside lists, tuples and dictionaries.

Learning Outcomes:

• Upon completing this lab exercise, the learner will be able to
• Write a basic python data structures syntax and semantics.
• How to create empty list and how to perform various operations on lists for data manipulations.
• How to create empty tuple and how to perform various operations on tuple for data manipulations.
• How to create empty dictionary and how to perform various operations on dictionary for data manipulations.

Theory:

1. What are the mutable and immutable objects in python?
2. How to create and access elements from lists?
3. How to modify and slice the lists elements?
4. What is mean by nested list explain with example?
5. What type of data we can store in list?
6. How to create and access elements from Sets?
7. How to perform various operations on the Sets?
8. What is the difference between set and frozen set?
9. Why do we require dictionaries in python?
10. Explain the copying collections: shallow copy and deep copy with example?

Algorithm:

Algorithm:

a) Algorithm for list creation and various operation.

Step 1: Start

Step 2: Create an empty list like my_empty_list.

Step 3: Create list of string, integer, float number.

Step 4: Create list of different data types and duplicate numbers.

Step 5: Find the age = current_year - birth_year.

Step 6: Display the name along with its length and age in year.

Step 7: Stop.

Flowchart:

Conclusion: Hence, we learn how to implement the python basic data structures like list, tuple, dictionary and also learn various operation of those data structures.

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Assignment No:03

Problem Statement: Write a function to calculate factorial of a number. Develop a program to compute binomial coefficient (Given N and R).

Aim: To implement function using python programming.

Learning Objectives:

• To understand the basics about python functions.
• To learn how to create and manipulate data inside functions.
• To learn types of functions.

Learning Outcomes:

• Upon completing this lab exercise, the learner will be able to
• Write a basic python function syntax and semantics.
• To implement functions for various task.
• Clear the difference between user defined function and built in function.

Theory:

Algorithm:

a) Algorithm for factorial of any number and compute binomial coefficient.

Step 1: Start

Step 2: Accept N and R from the user.

Step 3: using function of factorial compute the factorial of N.

Step 4: Display the factorial of value N.

Step 5: Compute the binomial coefficient of N and R (N!) /((N!) *(N-R)!)

Step 6: Display the binomial coefficient of N and R.

Step 7: Stop.

Flowchart:

Conclusion: Hence, we learn how to implement the function like user defined function for computation of factorial of any number n.

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Assignment No:04

Problem Statement: Develop a Python program to check whether a given number is palindrome or not and also count the number of occurrences of each digit in the input number.

Aim: To understand the uses of looping and decision-making statement.

Learning Objectives:

• To understand the basics about python decision making statement.
• To understand the basics about python looping statements.

Learning Outcomes:

• Upon completing this lab exercise, the learner will be able to
• Write a basic python looping statement syntax and semantics.
• How and when to use decision making statements.

Theory:

Algorithm:

a) Algorithm for to check whether a given number is palindrome or not and also count the number of occurrences of each digit in the input number.

Step 1: Start

Step 2: Accept number n from user.

Step 3: using user defined function of reverse, reverse the number n and store it into rev identifier.

Step 4: Check number n and rev are equal or not. if equal show palindrome else shoe not palindrome message to the user.

Step 5: Compute the occurance of each digit inside the number n using user defined function.

Step 6: Display the count of occurance of each digit.

Step 7: Stop

Flowchart:

Conclusion: Hence, we learn how to implement the function, looping and decision-making statements to develop a logic to check whether given number is palindrome or not.

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Assignment No:05

Problem Statement: Develop a program to read the student details like name, USN and marks in 3 subjects. Display the student details, total marks and percentage with suitable messages

Aim: To implement class by using student entity.

Learning Objectives:

• To understand difference between procedure-oriented language and object-oriented language.
• To understand the uses of oops features like encapsulation and data hiding.
• To understand the syntax of writing class.

Learning Outcomes:

• Upon completing this lab exercise, the learner will be able to
• Able to map any entity into the class.
• Able to analyze the problem statement.
• Able to identify properties and behavior of entity.

Theory:

Algorithm:

a) Algorithm for display the student details, total marks and percentage with suitable messages

Step 1: Start

Step 2: Accept student name, USN and marks of three subjects (FPP, AC, SPM)

Step 3: using function find out the total of three subjects.

Step 4: Using function find out the percentage of students.

Step 5: Display all the details of student.

Step 6: Stop

Flowchart:

Conclusion: Hence, we learn how to implement the class in python along with its object creation and calling of functions as per the priority user requirement. 

Use case of interactive balance enquiry using java JDBC.

 

Advanced Java: 07

Q. Write a Java program to implement the use case of interactive balance enquiry.

Use Case 1: Enter account no: 1001                                        Use Case 2: Enter account no: 10001

                     Balance is Rs. 66022.0                                                             Account does not exist.

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Memory Representation of above program:

Explanation of above program:

JDBC driver first duty is establishing the connection. Driver is connection creator.

> javac BalanceEnquiryApplication.java  // it compiles the code

> java BalanceEnquiryApplication

Java command goes to the operating system then OS calls the JVM. now JVM loads the .class file into RAM, after that JVM gives call to main method. accordingly, STACK AREA gets created for the main method and which remains present in main memory still main method is in execution.

Once main method completely executes then control goes to JVM. Now JVM will release memory of all the stack area.

Heap Area all the three objects 1. Connection object. 2. Statement Object and 3. Resultset object are there, and they become unreachable objects.

JVM internally keeps eyes on the Heap Area, and he observes there are three unreachable objects, so it automatically releases the memory of the objects, that is deallocation of memory. This is called Garbage Collection in JVM. Even if you don't close then also JVM will take care of this.

Q. How does database server know where the java program in the world is?

Ans: Client IP address and Port Number available in Socket inside database server as a client socket.

Now, imagine 100 of client connected to database server, then its duty of database server to maintain the client socket of each client. It's a burden on database server.

Now, assume if some java program without closing the database connection exit from the connection, then foolish (poor) database server still maintaining that socket of client.

if a greater number of such connections are there which ultimately blocks the real people who wants to connect the database server due to connection limit. So, until and unless you are not closing connection.close() in your java program database server maintains its client socket.

Q. Why to close the connection and statement object?

Ans: To release networking resources maintained by database server. when statement object created at database server some memory is allocated for SQL Statement from client side. So, once we done release that memory also that's why statement.close() instruction must be there in client-side java program.

Q. Why to close Resultset.close()?

Ans: The answer is as follows:

• When the java program submit statement to database server, it gets data from the Hard disk. after that it keeps that data in cache memory (Faste memory) and then send it to JDBC driver.
• Now, question comes to your mind is why do we need cache memory? So, as we know always hard disk operation are slower and time consuming (database is secondary memory slower 1000 times than cache memory) so; to improve the performance we keep data in cache memory. Cache memory is faster and costlier.
• To close this cache memory, we have to close resultSet object. So, this is called graceful exit.
• Note: if same query comes it fetch from cache memory for faster retrieval, if not it returns from the database. 

How to retrieve data from the database into a JDBC Client?

Advanced Java: 06

 Q. How to retrieve data from the database into a JDBC client?

By Submitting "SELECT SQL" Statement we can retrieve data from the database. executeQuery() method of statement object is used to submit select statement to the DBMS.

• executeQuery() method takes SELECT SQL statement as a string argument.
• It returns Resultset object.

Q. Explain about executeQuery() Method?

• executeQuery() method is JDBC API Method.
• used to send SELECT Statement.
• It belongs to statement object.
• It's return type is ResultSet.
• It throws SQLException if anything goes wrong.

Q. Explain about ResultSet()?

• Object oriented representation of database records received from the DBMS (Database server) is nothing but Resultset Object.
• ResultSet Object is logically divided into 3 Partitions.

1. Zero Record Area.
2. Record Area.
3. No Record Area.

• How resultset object internally look like?

• When ResultSet is open, a logical pointer known as Cursor points to zero record area of the resultset.
• When the cursor is pointing to ZERO Record Area or NO RECORD AREA, we should not try to read the data from the resultset. otherwise SQLException is raised.
• When the cursor is pointing to Record holding area then only you have to read the data. so how to move the cursor to record holding area as a programmer?
• java.sql.resultset has a method. "Next ()" to move the cursor.
• This method does two things: 1. Moves the cursor in forward direction by one record area. 2. After moving cursor, it returns true if record is present. It returns false if record is not there.
• ResultSet Object has a getter method to read data from the resultset record. these method takes column number of the resultset record as arguments and return the value.

After Execution of above code output will look like as follows.

Note:

getter methods are overloaded method you can give column names also or column number.

Develop a python program using class concept to display student details.

First of all we have to write an algorithm for the same:

Step1: Start

Step2: Accept student details from the user.

Step3: Find out the total of all three subjects.

Step4: Find out the percentage of marks.

Step5: Show the student information.

Step6: Stop

As we know we are implementing this assignment by using the concept of class are as follows:

Created class student with parameterized constructor.

Five data members with public access specifier. One show_student( ) method to display student information, accept_info( ) method to accept all details of students from the user at runtime, find_total() method to find total of three subjects, find_percentage() method to compute percentage of marks.

Line no 43 we have created one object s1 of student with details. so when object is going to be created the memory is going to be allocated for particular object and then corresponding methods are going to be called for that object.

After Executing this code you will see the output like this:

Program to implement an interactive deposit service using JDBC programming model.

 Advanced Java: 05

Q.1 Explain about getConnection() method in Driver-Manager.?

• getConnection() is a JDBC API method (Library Method)
• It belongs to java.sql.DriverManager class.
• It is a static method, so it is being called by class name. like DriverManager.getConnection()
• This method takes 3 Arguments.1. Database URL: Address of the database server. 2. Username. 3. Password.
• This method throws java.sql.SQLException if anything goes wrong while establishing connection with the database server.
• This method is factory method: Inside a method also an object is going to be created and send reference of it to the connection interface.
• This method provides database connection to a JDBC client.

Q.2 What is Port number? Please explain with example.

• Consider a scenario where you want to book a railway ticket manually, so what is the first thing he must know is the railway station address he must know. Similarly, Server IP address reach to server machine. accordingly, getConnection() method connect us to the server.
• As we know on railway station there are several counters for each one like ladies there is sperate counter, senior citizen there is a separate counter, in all general there is a separate counter. accordingly, the counter can work and proceed the task. 
• So counter number is nothing but port number. port number is unique number on server. MySQL 3306 is port number.

Q.3 What is the meaning of D:\> java DepositApplication

• java command given to operating system (OS) then OS calls the JVM, It's JVM duty to load DepositeApplication.class file into memory.
• Now, how can JVM know where this file is located? It knows through classpath. SET Classpath=""
• Note: Without installing MySQL driver, you cannot connect with database server. (mysql-connector-java 8.0.19)
• d:/> SET CLASSPATH=.; D:\mysql-connector-java 8.0.19
• Classpath is an environment variable used by JVM to locate class file.

Q.4 Explain about executeUpdate() method?

• executeUpdate() is a JDBC API method.
• It belongs to java.sql.Statement interface object.
• In real time projects 90% of java objects are interface objects only.
• This method is used to submit INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE SQL statements from the JDBC client to the DBMS.
• This method returns an integer this number represents the number of records affected in the database a result of that submitted SQL Statement.

Q.5 Write a JDBC Program to implement an interactive deposit service.

• Our program should ask the user to enter the account number and amount to be deposited.
• The database status before program execution is as follows.

Write a java program to connect database (MySQL) using JDBC.

 

Advanced Java: 04

Q.1 Write a java Program to connect Database (MySQL) using JDBC.

Q.2 Write a java Program to Store an accounts data (accountno, name, balance) into the database.

• Before writing and executing this program the following things should have done in MySQL DBMS.
• Open MySQL Client Console. enter the password root.
• mysql > create database hdfcdb;
• mysql > use hdfcdb;
• mysql > show tables.
• mysql > create table account (accuntno int (11), name varchar (20), balance double (10,2)).
• mysql > select * from account.

Q.3 Write a java Program to increase the balance of all the accounts by Rs. 1000.

After execution of code:

Detailed explanation of JDBC Programming Model.

Advanced Java: 03

Q.1 Explain about JDBC Programming Model?

a. Requesting for connection or log in to the database server:

• Java program and database server are communicating with each other is like client server architecture.
• It's a client duty request for connection.
• Java program being a client should get connected to the database server.
• In two ways java program gets connected to database server.

1. Driver Manager: (without connection pooling)
2. Datasource: (With Connection pooling)

Q.2 How java program gets connection to the database server?

• Java program makes use of Driver-Manager or DataSource.
• By calling getConnection( ) method on Driver Manager or DataSource, JDBC client request for database connection. 
• Connection connection = DriverManager.getConnection( )
• getConnection( ) is a library method.
• It is a static Method.
• It is used for database connection.
• java program logged into the database server that logging is called one session.
• Object oriented representation of JDBC client session with the database server is nothing but connection object.
• connection is an object. it represents java program session.
• As long as this session is active (i: e Connection is open) so long java program can perform CRUD operation with the database.

Q.3 How to create Statement Object?

• By calling createStatement() method on the connection object, statement object is created.
• Statement statement = connection.createStatement( )
• createStatement( ) method is a instance method.
• It is not a static method; it is on the object method.

Q.4 Why to Create Statement Object?

• Statement object is the designatory object to submit an SQL Statement from a java program to the DBMS.
• when we want to send a SQL, statement use statement object.

Q.5 How to submit the SQL Statement?

• java program objective is performing CRUD operation.
• Without statement we cannot perform CRUD Operation.
• Statement methods have two methods to submit an SQL Statement to the DBMS.

1. executeUpdate( String DML)
2. executeQuery( String DRL)

• executeUpdate() method is used to submit INSERT, UPDATE & DELETE Statement to the DBMS.
• executeQuery() method is used to submit SELECT Statement to the DBMS.

Q.6 Why and How to close the statement?

• by calling close () method on the statement object, statement is closed.
• statement.close()
• To release JDBC resources of the JDBC client maintained by the database server, statement should be in closed in JDBC Client.

Q. 7 Why and How to Close the Statement?

• By calling Close () method on the connection object, connection is closed in the JDBC Client.
• To release networking resources of the JDBC client maintained by the database server, connection should be closed in JDBC client.
• 
  
  

Q.8 What is Database?

• Database is not MySQL, MongoDB, oracle 
• Database is a collection of tables of the project.
• Database = Tables of the project + associated data.
• database is maintained by database server/DBMS/ RDBMS.
• 
  
  

Q.9 How Many Types of DBMS?

• DBMS are of so many types.

1. Network based Database Management System.
2. Object Oriented based DBMS
3. RDBMS almost used in industry.

What is the JDBC Programming Model?

Advanced Java: 02

Q.1 What is JDBC?

• JDBC is a java-based data access technology from sun microsystem.
• JDBC is not a software, not a programming language it's a technology.
• JDBC is a trademark name given to a technology.
• No framework in the world without JDBC they can communicate with database.
• There is no expansion of JDBC.

Q.2 What is the architecture of JDBC?

• Please remember if you know JDBC then only you understand database.
• Java database communication is to perform CRUD (create, read, update, delete) operation is acts like a client server architecture. JDBC follows client server architecture.
• A software or a program that request for resources is a client.
• A Software that provides requested resources to client is a server.

Q.3 What is a JDBC Client?

• Any java program that uses JDBC Technology to communicate with the database is known as a JDBC client.
• Why it is a client because java program is requesting for connection, requesting for CRUD operation.

Q.4 What is the JDBC Programming Model?

• There are certain steps that you have to follow to understand JDBC Programming model.

Note: First you should be conceptually strong and then you should be programmatically strong.

Q.5 What are the JDBC client-side requirements to communicate with the database?

• The movement we install JDK following things automatically get install along with it.

1. JDBC API
2. JDBC DRIVER

• Without JDBC API (library Methods) and JDBC Driver you cannot communicate with the database.

Q.6 What is JDBC API?

• Please note in interview if they ask what API is? then tell API is Application Programming Interface they are not asking long form of it please note. you have to tell them the correct answer is "A Collection of library methods" as you know in java methods belongs to Classes and Interfaces. Classes and Interfaces belongs to Packages. 
• likewise, to communicate with the database java has java. SQL package which having library classes and library interfaces.
• Now the answer for what is JDBC API? is "A Collection of library methods (that belongs to the library classes and library interfaces) of java SQL package."
• Note: You installed JDK means you install JDBC API, but you need to import the package (java. SQL) in application. we required this to perform CRUD operation with the database.
• JDBC API, is nothing but the tool.

Q.7 What is a JDBC Driver?

• JDBC Driver is a translation software written in java according to JDBC specification.
• JDBC Driver performs the following operation or duties to enable java-database communication.

1. when java program (JDBC Client) makes a method call, JDBC Driver will receive that method call. JDBC Driver translates this method call into Pure SQL statement and send it to DBMS Software. DBMS handover this statement to MySQL for execution.
2. Once the MySQL execute these statements (Query) it generates SQL Type response from the DBMS to JDBC Driver. now once again JDBC Driver translate this SQL Response into java format and handing over to java program (JDBC Client).

Imp Note: Once you understand JDBC, you will enjoy 6 to 7 ways of database connection.

 

Why do we require Advanced Java?

Advanced Java: 1

We are going to learn advanced java in question answer form.

Q1. What is CORE JAVA?

• Core java is used to developed standalone applications.
• Core java means only language learning.
• Core java is required to learn language but not sufficient.
• Core java 25years outdated because now a days no one use standalone application for businesses.

Q2. What is Advanced Java?

• To make the project online that is web application learn advanced java.
• if you want to develop internet-based application learn advanced java.
• if you want to become java professional you must learn advanced java.
• Collection of various tools and technologies through which we can develop dynamic application.
• To communicate with the database located at remote location we need Advanced Java.
• We can develop network centric, web based, enterprise applications using advanced java.

Q3. What is the basis for company to provide services to customer?

• For Ex. Bank --- Provides --- services to customers. Now using what they provide services to customer, so the answer is DATA. Online banking, online shopping any application to provide the services data is more important. (Joke in IT industry: More than wife data is important)

Q4. Which feature should data possess?

• Now question comes to your mind why data requires features? data must require features because if data is not having any feature, then there is no use of such data.
• Data of web application must possess following features:

1. Persistence (Permanence): for ex. bank having data customers account no if after few days bank forgot customer account number, can we think that application or project or software work?
2. Security: your data must be secure.
3. Easy accessibility: This feature is also required for easy access of data.

For example, consider a scenario if i stored data in hard disk, data is permanent, but it is not secure and not easily accessible. so can you think you will get all those things in one place. Yes, if we store data in a database data will possess all features permanence, secure, easy accessibility, instead of writing 500 lines of code to access data from file system we easily get data from database through SQL statements.

Q5. Now if database is there then why java is required?

• To answer this question let's assume, SBI bank all customers details stored in database. SBI is having 1000 branches all over India. suppose customer from Pune wants to know the balance enquiry so to know the balance can customer open SQL prompt and write SQL Statement for the same or can bank person open the SQL prompt and write SQL statement for the same as SELECT balance FROM Account WHERE Accountno=123.
• What do you think can bank person knows the SQL Statement definitely not. secondly how SQL appears in Pune branch because database server is located somewhere in Mumbai branch.
• From this we come's to know that database is weak in data processing and only database is not sufficient.

Q6. What is the Role of Java in Web application?

• Role of java is Backend processing.
• Communicating with the database and perform CRUD operations.
• For example, consider the use case of balance enquiry.
• When user enters his or her Account no: 1234 and click on getBalance button, java program will send select statement to database. similarly for CRUD operation java program will send insert, update and delete statement to the database.
• Data processing is done by java. 
• Making processed data to the frontend.
• java role is backend processing. (How to communicate with database is the first part of advanced java JDBC and Servlet)

Q7. What is the Obstacle for java -database communication?

• Java Program     --------------------------------------      Database
• As we know in core java when we want to do any operation using java it will do it with java method calls. now using java program, we want to retrieve balance from the database for that purpose from java side it will call method for the same. 
• now who will receive that method call answer is database will receive that method call but database does not understand method call. database understand only SQL Statement.
• Now we have to make request in the form of SQL Statement using java, but java compiler does not accept SQL directly.
• So, what we can say that java and database are heterogeneous to each other. 
• This is the main obstacle for java database communication.

but still java wants to communicate with database, so we can simulate this problem with real world entities like PM of India wants to communicate with PM of Russia. both doesn't understand language of each other. So, to overcome this obstacle they use mediator or translator for the same so that they can understand each other's opinion.

Similarly, we use JDBC as a mediator or translator between 

Java (method calls) --------------------    JDBC     -------------------------   DBMS (SQL Statement only)

Q8. How java database communication?

• By using JDBC java database connection is possible.

Next session will discuss.:

1. What is JDBC?

2. What is architecture of JDBC?

3. What is a JDBC client?

4. What is the JDBC Programming Model?

5. What are the JDBC Client side requirements to communicate with the database?

6. What is JDBC API?

7. What is a JDBC Driver?

Python program to check whether number is palindrome or not also count number of occurrences of each digit.

First of all, we have to write an algorithm for the same so that we come to know how to solve this problem statement step by step.

Algorithm:

1. Start

2. Accept any number n from the user.

3. Using function reverse the accepted number n.

4. Check whether the original and reverse number are same if yes then given number is palindrome.

5. If original and reverse number both are not same, then number is not palindrome.

6. Using function compute each digit occurrence inside the accepted number n.

7. Stop

Now, start the implementation of above algorithm step by step using python.

n = int (input ("Enter the Number n: "))

rev = reverse_num(n) # Function calling to reverse the given number.

if (rev = = n):

    print ("The number is palindrome")

else:

    print ("The number is not palindrome")

ocuurance_of_each_digit(n): # Function calling to find occurrence of each digit.

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# Function definition: To reverse the number.

def reverse_num(num):

    reverse = []

    while num >= 1:

        rem = int (num % 10)

        reverse.append(rem)

        num = num / 10

    print(reverse) # get number in reverse order but in list, so we want convert list to str

    temp=""

    for no in reverse:

            temp = temp + str(no)

    rev1 = int (temp) # now converting string to integer

    return rev1

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# Function definition: To find the occurrence of each digit in given number.

def ocuurance_of_each_digit(num):

    count = [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0]

    while n >= 1:

        digit = int (n % 10)

        count[digit] = count[digit] + 1

        n = n / 10

length = len(count)

i = 0

while i < length:

    if count[i]! = 0:

        print(f"{i} occurance is:", count[i])

    i = i+1

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NoSQL Databases